The Flawed Drug Policy of America - 1691 Words

Americas Flawed Drug Policy Introduction: As a major policy issue in the United States, the War on Drugs has been one of the most monumental failures on modern record. At a cost of billions of taxpayer dollars, thousands of lives lost and many thousands of others ruined by untreated addiction or incarceration, Americas policy orientation concerning drug laws is due for reconsideration. Indeed, the very philosophical orientation of the War on Drugs and of the current drug policy in the United States has been one of prosecution and imprisonment rather than one of decriminalization, treatment and rehabilitation. As our medical and scientific communities characterize addiction as a disease, the United States government continues to characterize this disease as a crime. And in doing so, it has created an unnecessary criminal class in the United States. The research, supplemental political cartoons and proposed research will set out to prove that stiffer drug laws will only have the impact of criminalizing countless drug addicts who might otherwise benefit substantially from rehabilitation and other treatment-based strategies. With a specific focus on the prohibition of marijuana even for medical use, and using the Toulmin model for putting forth and completing the argument, the research will set out to demonstrate the irrational Claims: The discussion here will pursue the claim that we have experienced a major failure of the central philosophy of the War On Drugs. TheShow MoreRelatedThe Death Penalty Is Not Effective911 Words   |  4 Pages Criminals most likely do not sit around thinking, â€Å"I won’t commit this murder if I face the death penalty.† Therefore, the use of the death penalty does not help reduce crime, so why use it? People have been released from death rows throughout America due to the evidence of wrongful conviction. 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Accounting Theory and Current Issues Commercial World Spend

Question: Discuss about the Accounting Theory and Current Issues for Commercial World Spend. Answer: Introduction A wide range of uncertainties is involved with the research and development expenditures identified by the firms across the different industries. The instabilities or insecurities are experienced by the businesses throughout the countries from the expected or premeditated benefits in the future stage of operations. Every organization wants to become profitable as part of conducting business activities in its respective segment of the market leading the managers to decide upon the sound investments having the capability to offer abundant returns to the company (Deegan 2013). Given the particular dilemma and hesitations faced by the firm, Generally Accepted Accounting Principles (GAAP) has mandated that the overall expenditures incurred by the businesses regarding the research and development process should need to be treated as expenses dedicated to improving the operations. Based on the investigation performed by Deegan (2013), the chief variance is experienced by the business throug h the application of research and development offering assistance to the business to develop progression into the market. Such progress is highly dependent on recognising the fair value of the complete research and development process by the acquirer (Corbin and Strauss 2014). On the other hand, a large number of business from the commercial world spend a huge sum of money on an annual basis in the research and development settings dedicated to shaping up business products and services (Patton et al. 2016). The particular example can be observed from the example of BSF Ltd in the identified case study. Cicchetti (2016) clarified that a large number of entities are engaging in the individual process with the intention of advancing their products or services facilitating the firm to generate a significant amount of revenues from its upcoming years of operation. In line with the identified concepts and facts associated with the research and development phase, this report is attempted to engender the involving prospectus and patent values related to the approaches and critical acknowledgements by the absolute undertaking. Nature and Value of Research done by BSF Ltd to the Society Research is defined as a planned set of investigations, which have its originality while undertaken with the aim of obtaining scientific knowledge or technical understanding over the product and services or techniques and approaches of the business (Cicchetti 2016). The precise example can be observed through the case study explaining the research activities undertaken by BSF Ltd, a bioresearch firm listed on the Australian Stock Exchange (ASX). Based on the case study, the company is engaged in the research on sustainable aquaculture feeds for almost two decades by comprising both plant based feeds and high-value piscavorian fish. The primary objective of research is studying the unknown from its early stage to propel the economic benefits towards the favourable direction of the business. Such target is meant to provide highly anticipated growth to the entire activities and proceedings undertaken by the entity (Northouse 2015). According to Corbin and Strauss (2014), an organization can employ a variety of business research for collecting the extended range of information regarding the current and potential degree of operations. Therefore, core outcomes of business research vary with their types, as each type of research comprise distinct nature driving them to be separated from one another. Developing a focus group of customers or conducting a consumer survey may be the effective part of the research depending on their potential requirements (Gioia, Corley, and Hamilton 2013). Patton et al. (2016) have discussed that the type of business research varies depending widely on the associated conditions of the business environment and needs of target market. Over the two decades, BSF Ltd was engaged in research with the aim of ensuring sustainability in delivering the aquaculture feeds by involving plant based feeds and fish based feeds. The particular type of research undertaken by the company is progressed by specifically including both quantitative and qualitative research approaches. From the application of the particular type of business research, various facts and numbers alongside the collection, evaluation, and interpretation of useful data based on observation and identification of critical sources (Baskerville and Wood-Harper 2016). The particular research conducted by the firm over the years had received a substantial amount of accusations from the environmentalists claiming the provided foods are diverting the quality of food crops into the growth and luxury fish. In response to such issue, the management of BSF Ltd has shifted its research to the application of bacteria for producing the fish feeds from various ranges of sources. The certain transformation in direction was influenced by the reactions and initiatives from the respective business world to encourage the firm providing a high degree of attention to increasing social value by the business practices and procedures. However, the particular nature of research encompassing both the creating of social value and undertaking rational approaches complying the social needs and requirements spawns high cost for the business in the division of research and development (Salthouse 2016). Therefore, the company should need to counter the risks in the forthcoming course of operations to ensure the intensification of profitable returns covering the massive investment made to conduct the proposed business research. Discussion of Nature and Difference between Research and Development According to Northhouse (2015), research and development refer to an apparent investment made by the business with the intention generating favourable cash flows in the future of operations. The earlier segments of the report have discussed the essence of research and development in the context of the business environment while clarifying the reasons driving the entities to adopt such procedure. Based on the practical implications of RD, the significant outcomes of the process lead the firm to meet the requirement of defining new assets for the business (Zikmund et al. 2013). Regardless of such fact, GAAP has instructed to treat the expenditures associated with RD as a cost for conducting business rather than identifying it as an investment. The particular fact is evidenced by the treatment of RD cost by the business, as entire expenditure deducted from the operating profit, instead of capitalising in the capital section of the business. Such understanding signifies the associated cost mainly creates the fundamental distinction between the different types of research and development. There is separate expenditure involved distinctively with research and development phase explicitly causing the creation of uniquely identifiable assets for the business (Zikmund et al. 2013). Such asset can either be usable to generate a certain amount of surplus to the business or sellable, i.e. transferrable to another enterprise. From the analysis of the case study, the past research activities adopted by the bioresearch firm in the Australian environment were not highly cost-consumptive. As part of the former business research, it drove the business to provide priority to studying a plant based feed when the highly valued fish based feeds failed to strive in the identified market. The new newly identified research on the use of bacteria to produce fish feeds is determined by the firm to form and deliver an adequate response to the numerous issues faced by the enterprise due to the substantial implications of environmental and social requirements. The major different between the two approaches of RD process is the involvement of high cost in the latest method due to the separate expenditure of required incurring by the firm for both research and development (Bryman and Bell 2015). As part of the development phase, the company would substantially require arranging the sum of annual investment while designing n ew assets in the production line to meet the outcomes obtained through the research. Fair Market Value Patent During the acquisition of another business, the board of director will always look into the value of a patent associated with the enterprise for developing a better understanding, as dictated by Gioia, Corley, and Hamilton (2013). Therefore, establishing a superior value for the patent is essential for the business for welcoming fundamental level of opportunities from the business environment. However, there is a vast array of factors affecting the valuation of patents for a firm striving it to grow proficient level of understanding regarding the assessment methodology (McNiff 2013). Furthermore, these methods are applied by depending on the usefulness of experience for ensuring the accurateness and delivering the objectives associated with the patent on a timely basis. In this particular case, Patton et al. (2016) have pointed out the imperative inclusion of financial analysis tools for developing needful assumptions and valuations providing assistance in determining the fair market value of the patent. In case of BSF Ltd, the application of patent is necessary for securing the huge sum of investment made in the RD process. Based on the condition of the business environment of the chosen firm, it is assumed that a True and Fair View valuation method should need to be in practice for determining the fair market value (Ritchie et al. 2013). Moreover, Ritchie et al. (2013) have clarified that overall process aims to provide further improvement options to the valuation of the intellectual properties, exclusively the patents. The development cost associated with a patent will be disclosed in the balance sheet of the company by adhering to the accounting standards outlined by IFRS and GAAP. A patent is meant to safeguard the RD strategies applied by BSF Ltd with the high anticipation of gaining an increase in sale or at least developing a cost-saving measure for the business to ensure its growth in the identified market. Based on the scenario, the calculation of fair market value of the identified patent should need to be conducted by involving an income-based approach. Net market value of the patent AUD 700,000,000 Discount Rate for the Project 8% pa It is assumed that the income tax rate is 40% and the present value annuity factor is 4.6755 On the other hand, the amortisation period is considered as 10 years Amortisation effect factor = 1/1 (Income Tax Rate) x (present value annuity factor)/ amortisation period = 1/1 (40%) x (4.6755)/15 years = 14% Therefore, present market value of the patent is, Therefore, Amortisation effect factor = AUD7, 000,000 x (1 + 14%) = AUD 7,980,000 Journal Entries for RD Transactions The principal transactions of BSF Ltd, as highlighted through the case study between the period of 2013 and 2016 are needed to be evaluated critically for ensuring their impartiality. Based on dictation of case study, BSF Ltd has obtained a grant from CSIRO for ensuring the investment in RD, as the overall scenario should prompt the accountant of the firm to create journal entries in the following order (Portney and Watkins 2015): Cash / Bank a/c Dr. $500 million To, Deferred income a/c Cr. $500 million (Being the grant received) Deferred income a/c Dr. $500 million To, Income from CSIRO Cr. $500 million (Being grant recognized in the P/L account) Concerning the findings reflected by Baskerville et al. (2016), the above identified journal entries lead towards the requirement of verifying such entries by the auditors to ensure the compliance with IAS 20. Therefore, the company should need to provide proper emphasis to the auditor duties and responsibilities of its auditors for eliminating misconceptions and errors in the financial reporting process right through the beginning. From the application of the case study, BSF Ltd had utilised the availed fund in different means, as the guidelines associated with IAS has indicated to use or commit the amount of resource in some specific areas (Cervone and Pervin 2015). The particular case study reveals that the specific amount of fund obtained from CSIRO was allocated by BFS Ltd to establish its business research and ensuring development for the coming two years. Reasonability of Managements Assertion The case study reflecting the assertion of the management to developing control over the bacteria-based feeds technology cannot be thoroughly validated or justified. It is acknowledged due to the failure to conduct a successful research by the previous organization concerning the development of a sustainable aquaculture approach. The improper application of technology would cause the death of wide number of fish from the aqua environment, where the proper control mechanism by the organization could reduce the occurrence of such scenario (Charmaz 2014). Apart from that, the extensive control over the use of technology would significantly reduce time and cost associated with such investment. References Baskerville, R.L. and Wood-Harper, A.T., 2016. A critical perspective on action research as a method for information systems research. InEnacting Research Methods in Information Systems: Volume 2(pp. 169-190). Springer International Publishing. Bryman, A. and Bell, E., 2015.Business research methods. Oxford University Press, USA. Cervone, D. and Pervin, L.A., 2015.Personality, Binder Ready Version: Theory and Research. John Wiley Sons. Charmaz, K., 2014.Constructing grounded theory. Sage. Cicchetti, D., 2016.Developmental psychopathology, theory and method(Vol. 1). John Wiley Sons. Corbin, J. and Strauss, A., 2014.Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures for developing grounded theory. Sage publications. Deegan, C., 2013.Financial accounting theory. McGraw-Hill Education Australia. Gioia, D.A., Corley, K.G. and Hamilton, A.L., 2013. Seeking qualitative rigor in inductive research notes on the Gioia methodology.Organizational Research Methods,16(1), pp.15-31. McNiff, J., 2013.Action research: Principles and practice. Routledge. Northouse, P.G., 2015.Leadership: Theory and practice. Sage publications. Patton, L.D., Renn, K.A., Guido, F.M., Quaye, S.J., Evans, N.J. and Forney, D.S., 2016.Student development in college: Theory, research, and practice. John Wiley Sons. Portney, L.G. and Watkins, M.P., 2015.Foundations of clinical research: applications to practice. FA Davis. Ritchie, J., Lewis, J., Nicholls, C.M. and Ormston, R. eds., 2013.Qualitative research practice: A guide for social science students and researchers. Sage. Salthouse, T.A., 2016.Theoretical perspectives on cognitive aging. Psychology Press. Zikmund, W.G., Babin, B.J., Carr, J.C. and Griffin, M., 2013. Advances in leader and leadership development: A review of 25years of research and theory.The Leadership Quarterly,25(1), pp.63-82. Zikmund, W.G., Babin, B.J., Carr, J.C. and Griffin, M., 2013.Business research methods. Cengage Learning.

Iron And Silk Essays (619 words) - Mark Salzman, Iron Silk

Iron And Silk Salzman, M., (1986). Iron and Silk. New York: Random House. This book was given to me by a good friend who knew that I had an interest in Asia. I chose to read it because it was a true story and was told that it was a good read. The author travels to China as an English teacher for the Hunan Medical School. There he stayed for two years picking up many anecdotes along the way. The author already had spent a large amount of his life studying Chinese language and the martial arts. However, when he arrives in China he meets teachers who have dedicated their entire lives to perfecting a particular art or skill, whether it be martial arts or calligraphy. Mark Salzman was perfecting his calligraphy skills and as weeks had passed he began to make progress. He was getting tired of the models and wanted to try something new. When he told Hai Bin,(his teacher), he frowned and said,?Some people spend their entire lives researching a single model. You should be willing to spend a year on this one.? This is an example of the dedication and perseverance these men have towards their chosen artform or skill. Another example of this theme, was Mark's Wushu teacher, Pan, who punched a fifty pound plate of steel up to ten thousand times a day. Mark's relentless practicing of the many forms of Wushu was influenced by Pan. Salzman also showed that there was great oppression. The people of China were under constant surveillance and control. Rarely were they able to make important decisions for themselves. It was sad to see that in a country with so many people there was so little freedom. The government controlled everything from the railroad to the Rat Collection Office to whether families and friends could mourn for lost loved-ones. Mark found this way of life troublesome yet he had stay strong and focused for his calligraphy and martial arts. Mark Salzman's Iron and Silk did a wonderful job of illustrating the people of China. He brought to life a corner of the world that we would rarely be able to see, outside of picture books. His representation is a very personal one, taking you beyond the scenery and into the action and heartache. Throughout this book, Salzman expertly reveals the personality and spirit of the Chinese people. He does this with his own type of special imagery. He drops in enough key details and leaves the rest to your imagination. This caused me to pay close attention to what was going on. His style of writing makes you feel like you are right there beside him, participating in each of his many escapades. I was influenced by the dedication his teachers had for their chosen artform and will remind myself to use that dedication and perseverance in my long-term goals. Mark Salzman's purpose was to take you to China and introduce you to the people he had met on his journey. He had published this book only two years after he had gone to China. He desperately wanted to share an outsiders look into China and what influences were in his life. Mark wrote so fluidly that it was person to person. Anyone can pick up this book and be an observer in the memories of the author. I found that my reading skills vary like a roller coaster. I had days when I found my reading to be very choppy and I had to remind myself to see the words in the book as speech and not words in a book,(if that makes any sense). My vocabulary was up to par and the book was an easy read. I began to use my speed reading techniques without discomfort near the last few chapters in the book. Book Reports

10 Facts on Health Economics for a Presentation

10 Facts on Health Economics for a Presentation Health Economics is one of the interesting topics to study. It is defined as the branch of economics concerned with issues related to the effectiveness, efficiency, value and behavior in producing and consuming, health and healthcare. Due to its broad scope, your instructor may ask you to create a presentation on a related topic of your choice. You can always check our 20 topics on health economics for a presentation to find a topic that best suits you or you can scroll down to check the following ten facts for inspiration. There is a current debate as to whether healthcare is a want or need. Health care becomes a want depending upon one very important factor, which is if a person is either earning handsomely or just the bare minimum. If a person is earning generously, they will try to avoid going through pain and discomfort using any means possible. On the other hand, those earning less will try to avoid expensive health care in any way possible. However, health care becomes a necessity for people who are aging, especially those living on their own. Health economics is a way to improve existing health systems or create new structures altogether. A certain value can be added to the health system if each resource is allocated in a smart and efficient way. The reason why health economics needed an extra category under the umbrella of general economics is because health care takes a huge chunk out of a country’s economy. In the United States, health care is a huge concern as it consumes over 16 percent of the country’s GDP. As the population of USA increases every year, more people require health care services. Not only does this exponential growth of health care requirements affect the government budget, it also affects the profitability of private sectors. Health is generally considered to be one of the basic human rights by the World Health Organization. While this seems like a very accurate statement, economically attaining absolutely free health care system is a huge strain on a country’s economy. Once again, optimizing health economics is one of the most effective methods to minimize costs. Adverse Selection is a very basic principle that a student of health economics must learn. This is when either the buyer or the seller of health care insurance has prior information about each the other which they obscure from one another for personal benefit. In simpler terms, it is when the buyer of the policy hides key facts about their medical history or the seller unethically finds out information that will lead them towards rejecting applications of people whose medical history is costly. Basically, if the seller or the buyer manipulates asymmetrically acquired information in a way that it benefits them on account of the other party, this is considered to be adverse selection. Health care costs have skyrocketed in the United States and this has been a huge topic of discussion amongst many sectors. According to the Centers for Disease Control Prevention’s health statistics, health care costs have doubled since the year 2000 as it has grown from 1.2 trillion dollars to 2.3 trillion dollars. According to various national surveys, the cost of health insurance, out of pocket costs and national health expenses are rising as each year passes by. According to the CIA, the US stands at a surprisingly 43rd rank when it comes to life expectancy in the entire world. Similarly, it stands at a disappointing 167th position in the world in terms of infant mortality. A study also found out that the USA’s percentage of stopping preventable deaths is declining in great numbers as compared to the healthcare system of Japan and Australia. The size of the hospital affects the cost of treatment due to several very important reasons. A larger establishment can have a larger network of specialized medical units. This compartmentalization can lead to efficient treatment and, more importantly, extra throughput of treated patients. Through basic economics, the cost of treatment drops because the supply increases due to a larger efficient system. Moreover, a larger institute can afford to buy supplies in bulk quantities. All of this boils down to the ethical code of the hospital. To ensure that the system is not manipulated, medical establishments that create supply-monopoly and perform unnecessary treatments for profit can be held accountable and punished by the law if their misconduct is exposed. According to various studies, the supply of labor can be increased if there is improved healthcare provided. However, this has its side effects too. If the economic growth is incapable of withstanding the sudden influx of labor, there will be no profit in the per capita output. The results can actually be very devastating as the unemployment rate will increase. Generally speaking, health economics is not immune to the overall economic growth of the country. Therefore, if the healthcare system is improved in a poor society, it will have adverse effects such as rise in population, increase in poverty, and poor health of the population. If a balance is created between the overall economic growth and health economics, the results can be very opposite. Improved health of the employees can result in a substantial bump in the production efficiency and the cost per unit drops accordingly. If the overall health conditions of an area improve, that can also start housing projects as people will become more prosperous. A good health program increases the overall morale as well, motivating entrepreneurs to start small businesses. Health economics is an extremely important study because it is the very connection between the basic health and the resources required to sustain it. Resources do not just mean money, though; they can also be the amount of people, material and time. These resources are not infinite and, therefore, they need to be allocated and managed systematically. Once you decide on a topic from these, do not forget to check out our guide on how to write a presentation about health economics to come up with an excellent presentation which your instructors will grade you generously for. Resources: Bhattacharya, J., Hyde, T., Tu, P. (n.d.). Health Economics. Gruber, J., Newquist, H. P. (2011). Health Rare Reform: What it is, why its necessary, how it works. New York: Hill and Wang. Health Affairs. (n.d.). Retrieved April 21, 2016, from http://content.healthaffairs.org/content/33/1/67.long Sloan, F. A., Hsieh, C. (2012). Health economics. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. COUNTRY COMPARISON :: LIFE EXPECTANCY AT BIRTH. (n.d.). Retrieved April 21, 2016, from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/rankorder/2102rank.html Drummond, M., Drummond, M. (2005). Methods for the economic evaluation of health care programmes. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Is the US Population Behaving Healthier? (n.d.). Retrieved April 21, 2016, from nber.org/papers/w13013

TEXTBOOK-Brinkley, American History, Connecting with the Past, Volume Essay - 1

TEXTBOOK-Brinkley, American History, Connecting with the Past, Volume II, McGraw Hill chapters23-24 - Essay Example Despite the fact that the stock market began regaining some of its losses towards the end of 1930, it was not sufficient to avert the onset of the economic depression. Another main cause was bank failures. The 1930s experienced over 9,000 bank failures. There was no insurance for bank deposits, hence with the failure of the banks, individuals simply ended up losing their savings. Because the surviving banks were not certain about the economic condition and had concerns about their own survival, they were not willing to issue new loans. This aggravated the existent situation and led to lesser expenditure. In addition to that was a drop in purchasing across the board. As the stock market had crashed and the advancement of further economic conundrums heightened, people across all classes stopped buying items. The result was a drop in the number of produced items, hence a reduced workforce. Individuals who had been laid off from their jobs were not in a position to deposit payments for i tems they had purchased via installment plans, leading to repossession of these items. The rate of accumulation of inventory began to increase. There was a rise of over 25% in unemployment which of course meant reduced spending that could abate the existent economic condition. The American policy with Europe also contributed in a great way to the Great Depression. With businesses starting to fall, the Smoot Hawley Tariff of 1930 was forged by the government in a bid to protect American governments. The tariff imposed high tariffs on imports resulting in reduced trade between foreign countries and America, coupled with retaliation in the economy (Brinkley, 604) President Hoover and the Republican Response to the Crisis In a similar fashion to the economic crisis of 2008, president Hoover assumed office immediately following the stock market crash in 1929. His response to the economic downturn was remarkably similar to the current response by the Federal Reserve and SEC. He did not wa nt to meddle with the markets and looked to offer support to the banking system by making an offer to fund business in return for collateral. As such, he started programs of public works. The lengths taken by Hoover were obscured by the great lengths that the Franklin Roosevelt administration took. Public works programs during this period had a sizeable impact upon a generation reliant on soup lines to survive. Attempts by president Hover to resolve the economic crisis were in most instances unsuccessful. His loss to Franklin Roosevelt in the 1932 presidential therefore was not a surprise. Hoover thereafter devoted a lot of time over the next dozen years to the fight by the Republicans against the New Deal, and believed that President Roosevelt would function to compromise the political system of the United States with his extensive government programs. Six weeks following the death of Roosevelt, Hoover held a meeting with President Harry Truman in May 1945. Together, they planned t o recover post-war Europe. Upon a request by Truman, Hoover travelled across the globe to afford the president a personal statement on food needs of the world. More significantly, Hoover rallied his fellow Republicans to offer support to President Truman’s food relief programs. Hoover worked as chairman of the newly-formed Commission on Organization of the Executive Branch which later came to be known as the Hoover commission, and worked in

Advertising S.C.O.R.E Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Advertising S.C.O.R.E - Essay Example By using black and white, terrible imagery with savage people fighting to get a bite of the apple, 5 Seeds shows how it can transform people in a variety of different ways. The simple goal of the advertisement is to make sure people identify with natural ingredients and the benefits to the body and mind. The ad is creative with its use of black and white and then a transformation into colour to show how simple ingredients like the apple manage to create a better environment and a happier person. It has impact because the whole idea of Adam and Eve was that they were misled by nature in the biblical story and told not to eat the apple, even though they wanted it very badly. By showing ancient people in dark and frightening environments and then transforming the background into a more civil and inviting colour scheme, it shows that the natural ingredients in 5 Seeds have benefits in many different ways. The creativity comes in not only the colour scheme, but by using age-old concepts (Adam and Eve) to give the drink a more modern view regarding health and mental well-being. Creativity is also noticeable with the crows that seem to be protecting the apple as a means to preserve their own food sources. It shows that these ingredients are even important to animals, however people are the winners in the struggle and are clearly made better for it. When the Eve character puts her very life out on the limb just to get a single bite, it tells the consumer that they should actively seek 5 Seeds because it is made from the most quality ingredients on Earth. The originality of the advertisement comes in how it transforms evil surroundings into more beautiful surroundings, giving consumers a kind of story that peaks their interest. 5 Seeds has many competitors and it would be difficult to differentiate the product from other similar products on the drink market. Therefore, in order to make the advertisement stand out competitively, they use imagery

The Lemba Clan, Are They Real Jews Essay Example for Free

The Lemba Clan, Are They Real Jews Essay Introduction Walking through the Venda Plaza shopping center in Thohoyandou, South Africa, R dai ae ta a ad a tm ,T aioe f Jws bo e . Gv g i a uznw vdo m n n si o eâ€Å" hts n o my e i rt r† i n h d h hs i m pzl ytn i e l kh ep i dâ€Å"a a l k e . cm f m I al l gi e uz d ei r ud o ,e xln ,Im Ba Jw We a er s eao t e tg o ae c o r n m aoT e hv poe iwt gns N t nowing what to say and not having heard about this g. hy ae rvdt i ee. o k h † before, I let his statement pass. My time in South Africa was devoted to working with a victim empowerment program, but I continued to wonder about the idea of Black Jews. The Black Jew or Lemba population creates a blip on a cultural map of sub-Saharan Africa. When researchers discovered and studied them over the last fifteen years, the Lemba also made a blip on the genetic map of sub-Saharan Africa. Genetic analysis of the Lemba has focused primarily on the Y chromosome, which is useful for studying variation among and distance between populations. The Lemba genetic markers support the oral tradition which says the Lemba came from the north. This paper reviews biological and cultural studies of the Lemba and the correlation between genes and oral tradition to propose a biocultural history for the Lemba people. Biology Genetic Variation across Populations Much of the study of genetic variation has focused on dissimilarity between groups. Genetic variation over time is used to postulate about the place and time of the origins of modern humans as well as subsequent movement and migration. Genetic variation is the greatest in Africa, and it is reasoned that the longer a group has been around, the more variation it will have in its gene pool. Additionally, the longer groups are apart, the greater their genetic distance (Cavalli-Sforza and Cavalli-Sforza, 1995). Maps of variation show migrations out of, around, 1 and back in to Africa (Cavalli-Sforza and Cavalli-Sforza, 1995). Based on comparison of genetic landscapes, maps by Cavalli-Sforza and Cavalli-Sforza (1995) show the arrival of Neolithic cultivators in northern Africa 8,000 to 9,000 years ago. The migration of people continues down the eastern side of Africa, with groups mixing and moving. According to Cavalli-Sforza and Cavalli-Sforza (1995), the Bantu arrived in South Africa 300 to 400 years ago, and the archaeological and linguistic data support the history of Bantu expansion. Cavalli-Sforza’t e o py gnt r aosi a gnr e t og ae g sr s f hl eece t nh s r ee t h uh vr e e o i li p e ad r a linkage analysis. Synthetic maps are produced from principle-component analysis of multiple gene frequencies. MacEachern (2000), however, criticizes Cavalli-Soz’sn eio gns fr s yt s f ee a h s and language for its assumptions about the nature of language and groups and its lack of cni r i o t d e i o hm n oii . A r a e n ui a ntone, os e t n fh i rt f u a sc ts â€Å" fcn t i n s r obudd d ao e v sy ee i hc t e homogeneous monoliths either frozen in place since before A. D. 1492 or caroming around the continent like cultural-ba n b lr bl†MaE ce ,00 7) G nr sn ec as er g ii d as ( c ahr 20: 0. ee lyt t m p i la l n 3 a hi provide a visual representation of variation, but they do not show how the variation came to exist nor do they reveal anomalies. The Lemba are an anomaly in the genetic patterns of Southern Africa. Variation and the Y Chromosome The primary genetic research on the Lemba has used the Y chromosome for comparison with other groups. The Y chromosome has many characteristics that make it favorable for investigating lineage. Almost all of the Y chromosome consists of non-recombining regions and the information is passed intact from generation to generation, from father to son. The variations, called polymorphisms, occur so infrequently that they are commonly called unique event polymorphisms (UEPs) (Stumpf and Goldstein, 2001). UEPs occur along male lines in 2 different time intervals, thus the changes can be compared between and among groups to examine relatedness and age by identifying variations (Bradman and Thomas 1998). More changes on the Y indicate an older line, and more shared sequences between Ys indicate a more similar gene pool. Once thought of as mainly junk, researchers have identified 20 different genes on the Y (Lowenstein, 1999). The function of Y is related to imparting maleness and to fertility (see figure 1). Figure 1: The human Y chromosome (Quintana-Murci et al. , 2000:173) Because most of the Y does not recombine, the Ycrm sm ise a a ui r tl ho oo es en s â€Å"n a n l p e ay t nm tdi ae ru† r s ie l kg gop which allows the history of the paternal line to be deduced (Poloni et a t n al. , 1997: 1015). The non-recombining section of the Y has the potential for a large number of different mutations (Stumpf and Goldstein, 2001). Because most variation in the Y is not expressed, changes are not selected for or against, which allows the record of these changes gets passed on (Bradman and Thomas, 1998). Four types of changes can occur between generations: microsatellites, minisatellites, snips and indels (Bradman and Thomas, 1998). Microsatellites are a section of repeats of a short 3 nucleotide sequence and minisatellites are a section of repeats of longer sequences. Snips refers to single nucleotide polymorphisms, meaning one nucleotide is changed. Indels are insertions or deletions of DNA in a particular location (Bradman and Thomas, 1998). An example of an indel is the Y chromosome Alu polymorphism (YAP). Alu is a sequence of about 300 base pairs which is inserted into a particular region of the DNA. There have been about half a million Alu insertions in human DNA and YAP is one of the more recent (Bradman and Thomas, 1998). Because they are unique event polymorphisms, YAP inserts and snips are unlikely to have arisen more than once in evolution (Thomas et al. 2000). An Alu can be copied, but it is not removed from a locus. After an Alu change, the YAP will accumulate new mutations at the same rate as surrounding DNA loci. One can think of an Alu insertion as a fossil, and patterns of new mutation allow the fossils to be sorted into lineages. (Dolan DNA Learning Center 2002). Different combinations of polymorphisms are known as haplotypes (Bradman and Thomas 1998). The more similar the haplotype frequencies of two populations, the more similar their biological history is likely to be (Bradman and Thomas 1998). Quintana-Murci, Krausz, and McElreavey caution that genetic drift, founder effects, and male-specific migration processes may lead to over-representation of specific haplotypes (2001). Genetic drift refers to random change in gene frequencies between generations which will cause frequencies to fluctuate up or down (Releford, 2003). After enough time and if no other forces are acting on a population, variation within a population will be reduced (Releford, 2003). The founder effect is a type of genetic drift where a small number of people form a new population, causing allele frequencies to deviate from the parent population (Releford, 2003). The Lemba Y 4 If Lemba migrated from Judea and Yemen and maintained the tradition of marrying only within the group, the Lemba Y haplotypes may be over-represented when compared to the neighboring populations. Thus, the Lemba Y is useful for comparison with African and Semitic populations their contribution to the Lemba. More genetic evidence of a non-Bantu origin for the Lemba is expected and found (Bradman and Thomas 1998). The Lemba Y has an additional genetic marker that indicates links to the Jewish priest class Cohen. Members cannot be appointed to this class and priesthood can only be inherited, thus a possible Jewish marker will be preserved down the line (Bradman and Thomas 1998; Cavalli-Sforza and Cavalli-Sforza 1995). Judaism began in Semitic tribes living about 4,000 years ago in the Middle East. In 586 B. C. , the Babylonian exile spread Jewish populations out of present-day Israel (Hammer et al. 2000). Hammer et al. (2000) used Y chromosome haplotypes to trace the parental origins of the Jewish Diaspora. Multi-dimensional scaling (figure 1 ) of frequencies of 18 Y-chromosome haplotypes in 29 populations produced three main clusters: sub-Saharan African, North African, and European. 5 Figure 2: Multi-dimensional scaling from Hammer et al. (2000:6772) The Jewish cluster appears in between the European and North African population clusters. The Lemba population is set halfway between sub-Saharan African and Jewish clusters (Hammer et al. 2000). Genetic and geographic distances were not correlated for other Jewish populations, which supports a recent dispersal and subsequent isolation model. Hammer et al. conclude that â€Å" m j pro o N Yb ll d e i .. ae to a common Middle Eastern source a a r ot n f R ili i rt . t cs o i aec v sy r ppli svr t uad erao (00 74. h iue lo ea an c i s f ou t n ee lh sn ya g†20: 7) T i s sf frvl t g lm o ao a o s 6 s u ui a Jewish origins as well as for supporting old ties to the Middle East. Once populations dispersed from the Middle East, gene flow with surrounding populations was likely. The Lemba present genetic markers identified with Bantu and Semitic populations (Spurdle and Jenkins, 1996; Wilson and Goldstein, 2000). Wilson and Goldstein (2000) examined 66 markers on the X chromosome to study the effect of admixture of Bantu and Semitic populations on linkage disequilibrium. Recent mutations will tend to have more linkage d eu i i (D t n i o eoe ( l n n G l tn20)â€Å" h s n i n i qib u L )h wl l r nsWio ad o s i 00. T e i ic t s lr m a ld s de, g fa difference between partially linked and unlinked loci rules out substructure as the sole source of the LD in the Lemba . . . Ethiopian-Bantu differentiation is not sufficient to produce the d eu i i osre it L m a ( l n n G l tn20: 2.T e oc s ns i qib u be dn h e b†Wio ad o s i 00 3) h cnl i i s lr m v e s de, 9 uo that the Lemba LD has two sources: parental population and admixture. Another examination on the worldwide distribution of Y haplotypes (Poloni et al. , 1997) found a significant correlation between genetic and linguistic distances. The picture of genetic affinities places the Lemba not with other sub-Saharan African populations but with Afro-Asiatic populations (figure 2 ) indicating admixture or a different parent population from other subSaharan groups. 6 Figure 3: Multi-dimensional scaling from Poloni et al. (1997:1019) Spurdle and Jenkins (1996) also looked at Bantu-Semitic variations to establish genetic affinities and offer a model for the origin of the Lemba. Their study analyzed allele frequencies of Y-linked Restriction Length Fragment Polymorphisms (RLFPs). Ht4 is a typical Negroid haplotype and it is found in the Lemba sample at a frequency of . 20, which indicates significant Negroid male gene flow into the Lemba (Spurdle and Jenkins, 1996). Ht7, Ht8, and Ht11 are Caucasoid markers and the Lemba show high frequencies of these markers as well. These haplotypes seem to be typical of Jewish populations but also occur in Asiatic Indians, thus it is not possible to distinguish between Semitic and Asiatic Indian sources with these markers (Spurdle and Jenkins, 1996). The allele frequencies of the Lemba are significantly different from those of the Bantu-speaking Negroid population and the European population but not from those of the Jewish group. Spurdle and Jenkins (1996) conclude that 50% of the Lemba Y chromosomes analyzed appear to be of Caucasoid origin, and 36% appear to be of Negroid origin. 7. One possible method for distinguishing a Semitic origin, versus a general Middle Eastern origin, of the Lemba is to make comparisons with the Cohen modal haplotype, which is dominant in the Jewish priesthood (Thomas et al. , 1998). There are three castes of Jewish males: Cohanim, the paternally inherited priesthood; Leviim, non-Cohen members of the paternally defined priestly tribe of Levi; Israelites, all non-Cohen and non-Levite Jews (Thomas et al. , 1998). If the Lemba Y has Jewish origins, the Cohen modal haplotype is expected to be present. Thomas et al. (2000) continue the study of Bantu and Semitic markers in the Lemba adding the investigation of the Cohen modal haplotypes. Y chromosomes were analyzed for six microsatellites and six biallelic markers in the Lemba, Bantu, Yemini-Handramaut, YemeniSena, Sephardic Jews, and Ashkenazic Jews. The twelve polymorphic markers were characterized in multiple Jewish populations and identified single haplotypes (Thomas et al. , 2000). Genealogical trees were drawn based on microsatellite variation to explore possible origins of the Lemba Y chromosomes (Thomas et al., 2000). The trees can be used to assess whether each Lemba haplotype has a close genealogical relationship with one or more haplotypes in the other five populations. Trees for the individual haplotypes were drawn for each UEP group by measures of average squared distance and proportion of shared alleles (Thomas et al. , 2000). Thomas et al. (2000) designate 67. 6% of Lemba chromosomes as having a Semitic origin and the other 32. 4% to have a Bantu origin. The high frequency of the Cohen modal haplotype in the general Lemba population supports a Jewish contribution to Lemba gene pool found. The Cohen modal haplotype is observed only moderately in Ashkenazic and Sephardic Israelites, in a single Yemeni, and is present in a very low frequency in Palestinian Arabs (Thomas et al. , 2000). The genetic evidence is consistent with the Lemba oral history of Jewish origins in a population outside of Africa followed by admixture with Bantu neighbors. 8 Culture Oral tradition and Origins of Lemba The Lemba people claim ancient Jewish origins. According to oral history, they come from Judea, from whence they traveled to Sena. From Sena they crossed into Africa, moving down the coast, building great cities in Zimbabwe, and finally settling the northern part of South Africa. Additionally, the Lemba assert Jewish identity through their customs of food prohibitions, ritual slaughter of animals, and circumcision (Buijs, 1998; NOVA 1999; Parfitt 1992). These are not black people who have been recently converted to Judaism. Judaism is not a proselytizing faith thus conversion and intermarriage as an explanation for Jewish genes is unlikely (Cavalli-Sforza and Cavalli-Sforza, 1995). However, many groups across the world claim connections to lost tribes of Israel (Parfitt, 1992). Furthermore, the surge in Lemba Jewish identity is connected to political economy and other social circumstances in South Africa in the last fifty years (Buijs, 1998). The Lemba say they came from the North, possibly from Judea. Then they went to Sena, they crossed Pusela and came to Africa, where they broke the law of God and were scattered across African nations (NOVA, 1999). Parfitt (1992) located Sena in a remote valley of Southern Yemen. Parfitt reasons that Pusela is similar to the Masilah River, which they would have had to cross to get from Sena to the sea. The port town of Sayhut was used for Arab exploration of Africa. In Hadramaut, the valley where Sena is located, tribes have the same names as Lemba tribe names (NOVA, 1999; Parfitt, 1992). Genetic samples of Lemba and of people in the Hadramaut showed similar features as well as the Cohen modal haplotype (NOVA, 1999). Lemba Identity in South Africa 9 The Lemba live in Mozambique, Zimbabwe, and South Africa, but according to Buijs it is only in South Africa where one finds the belief of Jewish origins (1998). The Semitic identity was propagated by early white missionaries and colonial officials; their writings emphasized differences of the Lemba by comparison with European Jewish communities (Buijs, 1998). T ee ri supr d a e o o a ii tdn t (u s19: 1. u s19) o s hs w in spot â€Å"n t s f d t ci ty B i,98 6) B i (98 nt tg e h sn e i † j 6 j e that the Lemba were aware of their distinct cultural heritage prior to colonization, but when ethnic identity became important in Apartheid, the Lemba Cultural Association (LCA) became a m d mfrosut g peet a Jws H rae B i asr,T eniec ..n ei o cnt cn a r n dy e i e t . u s s t â€Å" h i s ne . O u r i s h ig j es st their Jewish heritage is a direct result of the struggle for resources, initially land and later civil sri j sit N r e Tasaln V na (98 6) Ietyi l i r i ad e c o , h ot r r vaad ed†19: 2. dn t n u n a a n ve b n e hn n 6 i, c d g c l ethnic identities, is not a static concept. Identity, especially during Apartheid, was tied to power. The Lemba Cultural Association was founded in the 1940s when Europeans were encroaching o r or s T e C polm d spr e u uai n tadh L m a i pr ne n e uc .h L A rc i e a ea tcl r d ty n t e b’ m ot c s e a a t l ei e s a identified the Lemba with a non-African community (Buijs, 1998). During Apartheid, literally meaning separation, people were classified by race: white, cl e,n b c. n’sc laaits e df e acri tt s cnet( e o r ad l k O e oi cpb ie w r e nd cod go h e ocp s od a s a li e i n e se Mandela 1994 for a first hand description of the Apartheid system). The Apartheid government, the white minority, knew that if black people were united, the white autonomy would be threatened. They instituted a Bantu education system that further classified blacks according to tribe and encouraged local identity and rule in hopes of keeping blacks divided (Mandela 1994). In the 1980s, as the white hold on power was becoming more and more challenged, the gvrm nc a d i eednhm l d† h h e stp uhhthy e sl oe etr t â€Å" dpneto e ns w i w r eu sc t t w r tl n ee n a c e a e ei 10 overseen by South Africa but the government no longer provided money or services to these areas. Lemba in Venda Vendaland was created and within these bounds were the Lemba. Before the independent hm l diw saoalfrBak e s ti n f t m e e ad e e o e n, a f r eo â€Å" l Jw †o d tyh sl s n b r a t v b c ei e v cognized as Lemba, because they were associated with whites and considered superior to other Blacks. However, in t â€Å" l k o e n,w e b cseu t io n oe m n ibcm m rf oalt h Ba hm l d hr l k stph r w gvr et tea e oe a r eo e c a † e a e n , v b be Black and not associated with whites. A highly placed civil servant in Venda government cm et â€Å" i t V na e e a etgop I t s dy w w rl h o m n d ‘ t h ed w w r n le ru. nh e as e e i t e wh e e i o e g -skinned .. . V nar t u l e sro uprl s . t C oe pol (a i,92 8. h h ed t a d si a otf pec s.. e hsn ep †Prt 19: ) T i e ee k a h e ft 7 s refers to the days of their arrival in southern Africa. At the beginning of the century, in spite of the dark skin, the Lemba were commonly called valungu – white men (Parfitt, 1992). The civil srate a e,‘ sog s vrt n ge j ti , y e g L m a os’matter . . . e nr r dâ€Å" l a ee h g osu f em bi a e b dent v m k A n yi s n n B tson sh g s rgi w ogiiar u do y e b oi n†19: ) T e ua so a t nst to g rn, s ti t tm L m a r i (92 7.h i a n t tb e g’ 7 status and identity of the Lemba has not been fixed and it has not always been Jewish. Proclaiming a form of Judaism is an event of the 19th century, but it does come from an o e cm la d eg u i n f ao (a i 19)â€Å" h L m a e e a a i l my l r o p ct r i osd ti t n Prt 92. T e e b si d prc a t d, i e li e ic i ft z tu r h and used it as a means of ridding themselves of a rather ancient ambiguity at a time when new ambiguities were being created every dy (a i,9225. T e e b igop i a†Prt 19:5) h L m as ru wt ft h particular traditional practices, and some say they are not a religious group but a cultural one (Sand, 2002). The Lemba culture today points to ancient Hebrew origins but some Lemba practice Christianity and Islam (Sand, 2002). The practices they do ascribe to ancient Jews would 11 not be identified as Judaism in the West, however they have adopted more Jewish traditions in recent years (Sand, 2002). Lemba today In post-Apartheid times, the Lemba identity is flourishing. They continue to have LCA meetings (Buijs 1998). Websites about their heritage and culture are published on the Internet. People in South Africa can identify themselves with whatever group or groups they please. About 80,000 Lemba live in the Venda area of the Limpopo Province in South Africa as well as the Johannesburg township of Soweto (Buijs, 1998; Sand, 2002). Lemba are also found in villages in the southwestern region of Zimbabwe (Buijs, 1998; Sand, 2002). In the Venda region, people speak TshiVenda. Another day when Rudzani and I were walking through the shopping center, he called up to a man with a phrase I did not understand. With a twinkle in his eyes, he told me that was the traditional greeting for a Jewish brother. Again, I let that pass, thinking he could translate it to mean whatever he wanted since I did not know TshiVenda (a favorite joke of my friends there). In reflection and after research, I do not doubt the old Jewish ties and if I go back to South Africa, I will be sure to find out more. Conclusion The problem with constructing the history of the Lemba identity is that it has been passed down through oral tradition. When it was recorded at the turn of the twentieth century, it is possible the outside visitors were biased or projecting a Jewish identity on the Lemba. Genetic data support the oral tradition, and genetic research has identified anomalies in the Lemba population. Across the articles, the same information about the oral tradition and culture of the Lemba was offered. Ethnographic study of the Lemba traditions, not in contrast to Jews or other Africans, is needed to understand what being Lemba means today. Further research considering political 12 economy, as Buijs did, will continue to fill out the picture of constructions and projections of identity for the Black Jews of South Africa. 13 Works Cited Bradman N, and Thomas M. 1998. Why Y? The Y chromosome in the study of human evolution, migration, and prehistory. Science Spectra, 14. 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